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The men summoned in this way were then summoned by the lieutenant who was the King's representative and military governor over an entire province comprising many bailiwicks, seneschalties and castellanies. All men from the richest noble to the poorest commoner were summoned under the arrière-ban and they were supposed to present themselves to the King or his officials.[7][8][9][10]The range of eligible ages for conscripting was expanded to meet national demand during the World Wars. In the United States, the Selective Service System drafted men for World War I initially in an age range from 21 to 30 but expanded its eligibility in 1918 to an age range of 18 to 45.[24] In the case of a widespread mobilization of forces where service includes homefront defense, ages of conscripts may range much higher, with the oldest conscripts serving in roles requiring lesser mobility.[citation needed]

Expanded-age conscription was common during the Second World War: in Britain, it was commonly known as "call-up" and extended to age 51. Nazi Germany termed it Volkssturm ("People's Storm") and included children as young as 16 and men as old as 60.[25] During the Second World War, both Britain and the Soviet Union conscripted women. The United States was on the verge of drafting women into the Nurse Corps because it anticipated it would need the extra personnel for its planned invasion of Japan. However, the Japanese surrendered and the idea was abandoned.[26]

USSR conscripts, Moscow, 1941

Arguments against conscriptionEdit

This section focuses primarily on the United States and not a worldwide view.

SexismEdit

Main article: Sexism and conscription

Men's rights activists,[27][28] feminists,[29][30][31] and opponents of discrimination against men[32][33]: 102 have criticized military conscription, or compulsory military service, as sexist. The National Coalition for Men, a men's rights group, sued the US Selective Service System in 2019, leading to it being declared unconstitutional by a US Federal Judge.[34][35] The federal district judge's opinion was unanimously overturned by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit.[36] In September 2021, the House of Representatives passed the annual Defence Authorization Act, which included an amendment that states that "all Americans between the ages of 18 and 25 must register for selective service." This struck off the word "Male" which extends a potential draft to women; the bill passed the Senate with bipartisan support. The measure will go in effect one year after enactment of the new law if it survives.[37][38]

Feminists have argued that military conscription is sexist because wars serve the interests of what they view as the patriarchy, the military is a sexist institution, conscripts are therefore indoctrinated in sexism, and conscription of men normalizes violence by men as socially acceptable.[39][40] Feminists have been organizers and participants in resistance to conscription in several countries.[41][42][43][44]

Conscription has also been criticized as, historically, only men have been subjected to conscription.[33][45][46][47][48] Men who opt out or are deemed unfit for military service must often perform alternative service, such as Zivildienst in Austria, Germany and Switzerland, or pay extra taxes,[49] whereas women do not have these obligations. Men who do not sign up for Selective Service in the US, are prohibited from eligibility for citizenship, financial aid, admissions to public colleges or universities, federal grants and loans, federal employment, and in some states, driving licenses.[50][51]

Involuntary servitudeEdit

American libertarians oppose conscription and call for the abolition of the Selective Service System, believing that impressment of individuals into the armed forces is involuntary servitude.[52] Ron Paul, a former presidential nominee of the U.S. Libertarian Party has said that conscription "is wrongly associated with patriotism, when it really represents slavery and involuntary servitude".[53] The philosopher Ayn Rand opposed conscription, suggesting that "of all the statist violations of individual rights in a mixed economy, the military draft is the worst. It is an abrogation of rights. It negates man's fundamental right—the right to life—and establishes the fundamental principle of statism: that a man's life belongs to the state, and the state may claim it by compelling him to sacrifice it in battle."[54]

In 1917, a number of radicals[who?] and anarchists, including Emma Goldman, challenged the new draft law in federal court arguing that it was a direct violation of the Thirteenth Amendment's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. However, the Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the case of Arver v. United States on 7 January 1918. The decision said the Constitution gave Congress the power to declare war and to raise and support armies. The Court emphasized the principle of the reciprocal rights and duties of citizens:

"It may not be doubted that the very conception of a just government in its duty to the citizen includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen to render military service in case of need and the right to compel."[55]

EconomicEdit

It can be argued that in a cost-to-benefit ratio, conscription during peacetime is not worthwhile.[56] Months or years of service performed by the most fit and capable subtract from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit; if there ever was a war then conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in any case there is little threat of a war in most countries with conscription. In the United States, every male resident is required by law to register with the Selective Service System within 30 days following his 18th birthday and be available for a draft; this is often accomplished automatically by a motor vehicle department during licensing or by voter registration.[citation needed]

According to Milton Friedman the cost of conscription can be related to the parable of the broken window in anti-draft arguments. The cost of the work, military service, does not disappear even if no salary is paid. The work effort of the conscripts is effectively wasted, as an unwilling workforce is extremely inefficient. The impact is especially severe in wartime, when civilian professionals are forced to fight as amateur soldiers. Not only is the work effort of the conscripts wasted and productivity lost, but professionally skilled conscripts are also difficult to replace in the civilian workforce. Every soldier conscripted in the army is taken away from his civilian work, and away from contributing to the economy which funds the military. This may be less a problem in an agrarian or pre-industrialized state where the level of education is generally low, and where a worker is easily replaced by another. However, this is potentially more costly in a post-industrial society where educational levels are high and where the workforce is sophisticated and a replacement for a conscripted specialist is difficult to find. Even more dire economic consequences result if the professional conscripted as an amateur soldier is killed or maimed for life; his work effort and productivity are lost.[57]

Arguments for conscriptionEdit

Political and moral motivesEdit

Further information: Social contract, Social solidarity, and Active citizenship

Conscription in Iran

Jean Jacques Rousseau argued vehemently against professional armies since he believed that it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defense of the whole society and that it was a mark of moral decline to leave the business to professionals. He based his belief upon the development of the Roman Republic, which came to an end at the same time as the Roman Army changed from a conscript to a professional force.[58] Similarly, Aristotle linked the division of armed service among the populace intimately with the political order of the state.[59] Niccolò Machiavelli argued strongly for conscription[60] and saw the professional armies, made up of mercenary units, as the cause of the failure of societal unity in Italy.[citation needed]

Other proponents, such as William James, consider both mandatory military and national service as ways of instilling maturity in young adults.[61] Some proponents, such as Jonathan Alter and Mickey Kaus, support a draft in order to reinforce social equality, create social consciousness, break down class divisions and allow young adults to immerse themselves in public enterprise.[62][63][64] Charles Rangel called for the reinstatement of the draft during the Iraq War not because he seriously expected it to be adopted but to stress how the socioeconomic restratification meant that very few children of upper-class Americans served in the all-volunteer American armed forces.[65]

Economic and resource efficiencyEdit

Further information: Industrial warfare, Total war, and War effort

It is estimated by the British military that in a professional military, a company deployed for active duty in peacekeeping corresponds to three inactive companies at home. Salaries for each are paid from the military budget. In contrast, volunteers from a trained reserve are in their civilian jobs when they are not deployed.[66]

It was more financially beneficial for less-educated young Portuguese men born in 1967 to participate in conscription than to participate in the highly-competitive job market with men of the same age who continued to higher education.[67]

Drafting of womenEdit

See also: Conscription and sexism

Female Israeli soldiers

Throughout history, women have only been conscripted to join armed forces in a few countries, in contrast to the universal practice of conscription from among the male population. The traditional view has been that military service is a test of manhood and a rite of passage from boyhood into manhood.[68][69] In recent years, this position has been challenged on the basis that it violates gender equality, and some countries, especially in Europe, have extended conscription obligations to women.

Nations that in present-day actively draft women into military service are Bolivia,[70]Chad,[71]Eritrea,[72][73][74]Israel,[72][73][75]Mozambique,[76]Norway,[77]North Korea[78] and Sweden.[79]

Finland introduced voluntary female conscription in 1995, giving women between the ages of 18-29 an option to complete their military service alongside men.[80][81]

Norway introduced female conscription in 2015, making it the first NATO member to have a legally compulsory national service for both men and women.[77] In practice only motivated volunteers are selected to join the army in Norway.[82]

Sweden introduced female conscription in 2010, but it was not activated until 2017. This made Sweden the second nation in Europe to draft women, and the second in the world to draft women on the same formal terms as men.[79]

Israel has universal female conscription, although it is possible to avoid service by claiming a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women do so.[72][73][83]

Sudanese law allows for conscription of women, but this is not implemented in practice.[84] In the United Kingdom during World War II, beginning in 1941, women were brought into the scope of conscription but, as all women with dependent children were exempt and many women were informally left in occupations such as nursing or teaching, the number conscripted was relatively few.[85]

In the USSR, there was never conscription of women for the armed forces, but the severe disruption of normal life and the high proportion of civilians affected by World War II after the German invasion attracted many volunteers for "The Great Patriotic War".[86] Medical doctors of both sexes could and would be conscripted (as officers). Also, the Soviet university education system required Department of Chemistry students of both sexes to complete an ROTC course in NBC defense, and such female reservist officers could be conscripted in times of war. The United States came close to drafting women into the Nurse Corps in preparation for a planned invasion of Japan.[87][88]

In 1981 in the United States, several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Selective Service Act of 1948 violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that only men register with the Selective Service System (SSS). The Supreme Court eventually upheld the Act, stating that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity.'"[89] In 2013, Judge Gray H. Miller of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas ruled that the Service's men-only requirement was unconstitutional, as while at the time Rostker was decided, women were banned from serving in combat, the situation had since changed with the 2013 and 2015 restriction removals.[90] Miller's opinion was reversed by the Fifth Circuit, stating that only the Supreme Court could overturn the Supreme Court precedence from Rostker. The Supreme Court considered but declined to review the Fifth Circuit's ruling in June 2021.[91] In an opinion authored by Justice Sonia Sotomayor and joined by Justices Stephen Breyer and Brett Kavanaugh, the three justices agreed that the male-only draft was likely unconstitutional given the changes in the military's stance on the roles, but because Congress had been reviewing and evaluating legislation to eliminate its male-only draft requirement via the National Commission on Military, National, and Public Service (NCMNPS) since 2016, it would have been inappropriate for the Court to act at that time.[92]

On October 1, 1999 in Taiwan, the Judicial Yuan of the Republic of China in its Interpretation 490 considered that the physical differences between males and females and the derived role differentiation in their respective social functions and lives would not make drafting only males a violation of the Constitution of the Republic of China.[93][(see discussion) verification needed] Though women are not conscripted in Taiwan, transsexual persons are exempt.[94]

In 2018, the Netherlands started including women in its draft registration system, although conscription is not currently enforced for either sex.[95]

Conscientious objectionEdit

Main articles: Conscientious objection, Antimilitarism, and Conscientious objection throughout the world

A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or, more often, with any role in the armed forces.[96][97] In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status, which augments their conscription duties. For example, Sweden allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the weapons-free civil defense.[98][99]

The reasons for refusing to serve in the military are varied. Some people are conscientious objectors for religious reasons. In particular, the members of the historic peace churches are pacifist by doctrine, and Jehovah's Witnesses, while not strictly pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed forces on the ground that they believe that Christians should be neutral in international conflicts.[100]

By countryEdit

Main article: Military service

Learn more

This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.

Conscription by country – ExamplesCountryConscription[101]Conscription genderAfghanistanNo (abolished in 1992)N/AAlbaniaNo (abolished in 2010)[102]N/AAlgeriaYesMaleAngolaYesMaleArgentinaNo. Voluntary; conscription may be ordered for specified reasons; per Public Law No.24.429 promulgated on 5 January 1995N/AArmeniaYesMaleAustralia (Conscription)No (abolished by parliament in 1972)[103]N/AAustriaYes (alternative service available)[104]MaleAzerbaijanYesMaleBahamasNoN/ABangladeshNo (but can volunteer at Bangladesh Ansar)N/ABarbadosNoN/ABelgiumNo (abolished as of 1 January 1994 under the so-called Delcroix Bill of 6 July 1993)N/ABelizeNoN/ABhutanNo[105]N/ABoliviaYes (when annual number of volunteers falls short of goal)[106]Male and FemaleBosnia and HerzegovinaNo (abolished on January 1, 2006)[107]N/ABrazil (Conscription)Yes, but almost all recruits have been volunteers in recent years.[108] (alternative service is foreseen in law,[109] but it is not implemented[108])MaleBulgariaNo (abolished by law on January 1, 2008)[110]N/ACanadaNo (occurred during 1917-1918 and 1940-1945)N/AChileYesMaleChinaNo (Male citizens 18 years of age and over are required to register for military service in PLA recruiting offices, but the policy is not enforced. Policy exempted in Hong Kong and Macao)[111][failed verification]N/AColombiaYesMaleCroatiaNo (abolished by law in 2008)[112]N/ACubaYesMaleCyprus (Conscription)Yes (alternative service available)MaleCzech RepublicNo (abolished in 2005)[113]N/ADenmark (Conscription)Yes by law, however a great majority of the recruits have been volunteers over the past few years.[114] According to Jyllands Posten, conscription has ended in practice.[115] (alternative service available)[116][117]MaleDjiboutiNoN/AEcuadorNo (suspended in 2008)N/AEgyptYes (alternative service available)MaleEl SalvadorNo. Legal, not practiced.N/AEritreaYes (18 months by law, but often extended indefinitely)Male and femaleEstoniaYes (alternative service available)Male and volunteer femaleEswatiniNoN/AFinlandYes (alternative service available)Male and volunteer femaleFranceNo (suspended for peacetime in 2001)[118]Service national universel (military and civil applications) being instituted as of 2021Male and femaleGambiaNoN/AGermanyNo (suspended for peacetime by federal legislature effective from 1 July 2011)[119]N/AGreeceYes (alternative service available)MaleHungaryNo (peacetime conscription abolished in 2004)[120]N/AIndiaNoN/AIndonesiaNo (But has a similar system, called PKRS (Pertahanan Keamanan Rakyat Semesta, Universal People's Defense and Security). The government will draft all men and women if the country has an outbreak of war).[121]N/AIrelandNoN/AIranYesMaleIraqNo (abolished in 2003)N/AIsrael (Conscription)Yes

The range of eligible ages for conscripting was expanded to meet national demand during the World Wars. In the United States, the Selective Service System drafted men for World War I initially in an age range from 21 to 30 but expanded its eligibility in 1918 to an age range of 18 to 45.[24] In the case of a widespread mobilization of forces where service includes homefront defense, ages of conscripts may range much higher, with the oldest conscripts serving in roles requiring lesser mobility.[citation needed]

USSR conscripts, Moscow, 1941

Arguments against conscriptionEdit

This section focuses primarily on the United States and not a worldwide view.

SexismEdit

Main article: Sexism and conscription

Involuntary servitudeEdit

EconomicEdit

Arguments for conscriptionEdit

Political and moral motivesEdit

Further information: Social contract, Social solidarity, and Active citizenship

Conscription in Iran

Economic and resource efficiencyEdit

Further information: Industrial warfare, Total war, and War effort

Drafting of womenEdit

See also: Conscription and sexism

Female Israeli soldiers

Nations that in present-day actively draft women into military service are Bolivia,[70]Chad,[71]Eritrea,[72][73][74]Israel,[72][73][75]Mozambique,[76]Norway,[77]North Korea[78] and Sweden.[79]

Finland introduced voluntary female conscription in 1995, giving women between the ages of 18-29 an option to complete their military service alongside men.[80][81]

Israel has universal female conscription, although it is possible to avoid service by claiming a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women do so.[72][73][83]

In 2018, the Netherlands started including women in its draft registration system, although conscription is not currently enforced for either sex.[95]

Conscientious objectionEdit

Main articles: Conscientious objection, Antimilitarism, and Conscientious objection throughout the world

By countryEdit

Main article: Military service

Learn more

This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.

USSR conscripts, Moscow, 1941

Arguments against conscriptionEdit

This section focuses primarily on the United States and not a worldwide view.

SexismEdit

Main article: Sexism and conscription

Involuntary servitudeEdit

EconomicEdit

Arguments for conscriptionEdit

Political and moral motivesEdit

Further information: Social contract, Social solidarity, and Active citizenship

Conscription in Iran

Economic and resource efficiencyEdit

Further information: Industrial warfare, Total war, and War effort

Drafting of womenEdit

See also: Conscription and sexism

Female Israeli soldiers

Nations that in present-day actively draft women into military service are Bolivia,[70]Chad,[71]Eritrea,[72][73][74]Israel,[72][73][75]Mozambique,[76]Norway,[77]North Korea[78] and Sweden.[79]

Finland introduced voluntary female conscription in 1995, giving women between the ages of 18-29 an option to complete their military service alongside men.[80][81]

Israel has universal female conscription, although it is possible to avoid service by claiming a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women do so.[72][73][83]

In 2018, the Netherlands started including women in its draft registration system, although conscription is not currently enforced for either sex.[95]

Conscientious objectionEdit

Main articles: Conscientious objection, Antimilitarism, and Conscientious objection throughout the world

By countryEdit

Main article: Military service

Learn more

This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.

USSR conscripts, Moscow, 1941

Arguments against conscriptionEdit

This section focuses primarily on the United States and not a worldwide view.

SexismEdit

Main article: Sexism and conscription

Involuntary servitudeEdit

EconomicEdit

Arguments for conscriptionEdit

Political and moral motivesEdit

Further information: Social contract, Social solidarity, and Active citizenship

Conscription in Iran

Economic and resource efficiencyEdit

Further information: Industrial warfare, Total war, and War effort

Drafting of womenEdit

See also: Conscription and sexism

Female Israeli soldiers

Nations that in present-day actively draft women into military service are Bolivia,[70]Chad,[71]Eritrea,[72][73][74]Israel,[72][73][75]Mozambique,[76]Norway,[77]North Korea[78] and Sweden.[79]

Finland introduced voluntary female conscription in 1995, giving women between the ages of 18-29 an option to complete their military service alongside men.[80][81]

Israel has universal female conscription, although it is possible to avoid service by claiming a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women do so.[72][73][83]

In 2018, the Netherlands started including women in its draft registration system, although conscription is not currently enforced for either sex.[95]

Conscientious objectionEdit

Main articles: Conscientious objection, Antimilitarism, and Conscientious objection throughout the world

By countryEdit

Main article: Military service

Learn more

This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.

In medieval Scandinavia the leiðangr (Old Norse), leidang (Norwegian), leding, (Danish), ledung (Swedish), lichting (Dutch), expeditio (Latin) or sometimes leþing (Old English), was a levy of free farmers conscripted into coastal fleets for seasonal excursions and in defence of the realm.[citation needed]

The bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the fyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the freemen of each county. In the 690s laws of Ine of Wessex, three levels of fines are imposed on different social classes for neglecting military service.[11]

Some modern writers claim military service in Europe was restricted to the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were the land-holding aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour and weapons for a certain number of days each year. The historian David Sturdy has cautioned about regarding the fyrd as a precursor to a modern national army composed of all ranks of society, describing it as a "ridiculous fantasy":

The persistent old belief that peasants and small farmers gathered to form a national army or fyrd is a strange delusion dreamt up by antiquarians in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries to justify universal military conscription.[12]

Painting depicting a battle during the Ōnin War

In feudal Japan the shogun decree of 1393 exempted money lenders from religious or military levies, in return for a yearly tax. The Ōnin War weakened the shogun and levies were imposed again on money lenders. This overlordism was arbitrary and unpredictable for commoners. While the money lenders were not poor, several overlords tapped them for income. Levies became necessary for the survival of the overlord, allowing the lord to impose taxes at will. These levies included tansen tax on agricultural land for ceremonial expenses. Yakubu takumai tax was raised on all land to rebuild the Ise Grand Shrine, and munabechisen tax was imposed on all houses. At the time, land in Kyoto was acquired by commoners through usury and in 1422 the shogun threatened to reposes the land of those commoners who failed to pay their levies.[13]

Military slaveryEdit

Ottoman janissaries

The system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkic slave-soldiers (ghulams or mamluks) by the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim in the 820s and 830s. The Turkish troops soon came to dominate the government, establishing a pattern throughout the Islamic world of a ruling military class, often separated by ethnicity, culture and even religion by the mass of the population, a paradigm that found its apogee in the Mamluks of Egypt and the Janissary corps of the Ottoman Empire, institutions that survived until the early 19th century.

In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, with a slave army called the Kapıkulu. The new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme (translated "gathering" or "converting"). The captive children were forced to convert to Islam. The Sultans had the young boys trained over several years. Those who showed special promise in fighting skills were trained in advanced warrior skills, put into the sultan's personal service, and turned into the Janissaries, the elite branch of the Kapıkulu. A number of distinguished military commanders of the Ottomans, and most of the imperial administrators and upper-level officials of the Empire, such as Pargalı İbrahim Pasha and Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, were recruited in this way.[14] By 1609, the Sultan's Kapıkulu forces increased to about 100,000.[15]

In later years, Sultans turned to the Barbary Pirates to supply their Jannissaries corps. Their attacks on ships off the coast of Africa or in the Mediterranean, and subsequent capture of able-bodied men for ransom or sale provided some captives for the Sultan's system. Starting in the 17th century, Christian families living under the Ottoman rule began to submit their sons into the Kapikulu system willingly, as they saw this as a potentially invaluable career opportunity for their children. Eventually the Sultan turned to foreign volunteers from the warrior clans of Circassians in southern Russia to fill his Janissary armies. As a whole the system began to break down, the loyalty of the Jannissaries became increasingly suspect. Mahmud II forcibly disbanded the Janissary corps in 1826.[16]

Similar to the Janissaries in origin and means of development were the Mamluks of Egypt in the Middle Ages. The Mamluks were usually captive non-Muslim Iranian and Turkish children who had been kidnapped or bought as slaves from the Barbary coasts. The Egyptians assimilated and trained the boys and young men to become Islamic soldiers who served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. The first mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th-century Baghdad. Over time they became a powerful military caste. On more than one occasion, they seized power, for example, ruling Egypt from 1250 to 1517.

From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak origin. Slaves from the Caucasus served in the army and formed an elite corps of troops. They eventually revolted in Egypt to form the Burgi dynasty. The Mamluks' excellent fighting abilities, massed Islamic armies, and overwhelming numbers succeeded in overcoming the Christian Crusader fortresses in the Holy Land. The Mamluks were the most successful defence against the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia and Iraq from entering Egypt.[17]

On the western coast of Africa, Berber Muslims captured non-Muslims to put to work as laborers. They generally converted the younger people to Islam and many became quite assimilated. In Morocco, the Berber looked south rather than north. The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail, called "the Bloodthirsty" (1672–1727), employed a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard. He used them to coerce the country into submission.[18]

In modern timesEdit

See also: Conscription and sexism

Female Israeli soldiers

Nations that in present-day actively draft women into military service are Bolivia,[70]Chad,[71]Eritrea,[72][73][74]Israel,[72][73][75]Mozambique,[76]Norway,[77]North Korea[78] and Sweden.[79]

Finland introduced voluntary female conscription in 1995, giving women between the ages of 18-29 an option to complete their military service alongside men.[80][81]

Israel has universal female conscription, although it is possible to avoid service by claiming a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women do so.[72][73][83]

In 2018, the Netherlands started including women in its draft registration system, although conscription is not currently enforced for either sex.[95]

Conscientious objectionEdit

Main articles: Conscientious objection, Antimilitarism, and Conscientious objection throughout the world

By countryEdit

Main article: Military service

Learn more

This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.

In the Russian Empire, the military service time "owed" by serfs was 25 years at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1834 it was decreased to 20 years. The recruits were to be not younger than 17 and not older than 35.[21] In 1874 Russia introduced universal

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